1.0 INTRODUCTION

The alternative urban future in developing countries by environmentally benign strategies with community participation in making best use of local skills, knowledge, culture and resources is essential for sustainable cities(Jagannatha. V, 1995). Studies predict trend in urban population to be 1.3 billion more people living in the Asia Pacific cities in 2025. This is an increase of over 90 percent from the 1995 number(IAS/UNU,1999). Absence of adequate participatory tools in urban planning, design and management can cause disastrous economical and ecological impacts. These impacts could be irreversible. Conventional school of planners believe that all human settlements planning and development begin with a premise that people are central focus and the city is its people (L R. Vagle,1996). Yet the reality is otherwise and inadequacies remain due to poor policy and lack of a definite agenda. Water supply and sanitation is a classical case of non-integration. The projects on water supply and sanitation are planned and executed almost independently totally ignoring the common denomination. In Indian urban sector an estimated 1,000 MW of energy production potential from solid and liquid wastes has been identified.(Bio-energy news, 1996) Over 65 percent of India’s urban population today live in class one town cities with population of over 0.1 Million. Further anticipating a massive urban infrastructure development activity with or without external supports, EIA and ESTs are significant tools. Thus appropriate interventions preventing irreversible damages in health, resources and ecological stability, related to urban development are essential. A case study on the Mysore Urban Development from a EIA and ESTs perspective reveals serious shortcomings in planning process. An urgent need to rectify the trend is essential to prevent irreversible economical and ecological damages..

2.0 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT - BACKGROUND

EIA as a tool has emerged stronger and effective since its first introduction in USA almost 30 years ago. In the beginning, project reviews were based on mere engineering and economical studies such as cost-benefit analysis and limited consideration of environmental consequences. During 1970-75, EIA was introduced in some developed countries. By 1979 after first decade of use, it was clear that more attention was required on the effectiveness, efficacy and relevance. This resulted in the emergence of new techniques such as social and cumulative Impact assessment and risk analysis. Thus by 1989, EIA became strengthened in its science and technical aspects. In the recent past there has been a realization that EIA must be more pro-active and address the plans, programmes and policies that defined the individual projects. Strategic Environmental Assessment(SEA) has development based on this realization. Notwithstanding these developments with EIA as a tool, the situation in developing countries is really mixed. It is argued ( Dilys,Barry and Ross, 1995) that the new challenges still face impact assessment particularly in countries where governance, ineffective institutional frame works and shortages of financial and human resources, rendering conventional approaches to impact assessment inappropriate.

2.2 What, Why, Cost, Whom and When - Environmental Impact Assessment

What is EIA? EIA is a process to improve decision-making and to assure that the project/programme options under consideration are environmentally and socially sound and sustainable. It is concerned with identifying, predicting and evaluating the foreseeable impacts, both beneficial and adverse from public and private development activities, alternatives and mitigating measures, and aims to eliminate or minimize negative impacts and optimize positive impacts. Impact Assessment includes a broad suite of different techniques, including EIA,SIA and SEA. EIA refers to a process rather than a particular activity. It provides information on the environmental, social and economical effects of proposed activities and is a mechanism by which information can be projected clearly and systematically to decision makers.

Why and Cost of EIA? Impact assessment is an important management tool for improving long-term viability of many projects and its use can help to avoid mistakes that can be expensive and damaging in environmental, social, and economic terms. As an exercise, Impact Assessment could incur cost that is only a small portion of the total project cost saving losses and damages which may be irreversible.

Who should do it ? Impact assessments are generally the responsibility of the project proponents and are often prepared with the help of external consultants and institutions. In some cases, an independent commission is responsible for ensuring quality control throughout the implementation of the impact assessment, for setting appropriate terms of reference and/or for external review of the Impact Statement(IS).

Community Participation? Experience has shown over years that development projects imposed on local communities often fail to address the types of issues perceived as priorities by those communities and hence fail to engender a perception of local leadership. This leads to a lack of public support and even conflict which may often lead to project under-performance or total failure. Ongoing Mysore urban development with Asian Development Bank(ADB) could be an example for a neglected stake holders effective participation.

A review of the EIA procedure ( Muraleedharan V., et al, 1994) in India reveal that prior to 1972 in India developmental strategies were with immediate economic cost of the face value of the affected resources. During 1972-1980 a new perspective started evolving. Complete stopping of the silent valley project for ecological considerations is an example. Projects that invited public criticism and controversy were investigated by a special task force that included environmental specialists. The final decision on whether to implement a project was based on both project’s feasibility study and reports of the special task force. Further, from 1980-1994 a major development of Environmental Appraisal in the MOEF,GOI developed. Even though the EA procedure was improved, it attracted a severe criticism for inadequacies. Public participation and Post-project monitoring and evaluation lacking were the weaknesses identified. A draft EI report was not released for public review and comment. It is documented that EA system in India up to 1994 contained shortcomings in completeness, openness, and objectivity and verifiability.

EIA Notification of MOEF,GOI,1994(MOEF,1994)in India is an important mile stone in Impact Assessment. The rules existing thereafter the Notification identified 29 industries requiring EIA and Environmental Management Plan(EMP) reports. Further. EIA Public Hearing Notification of MOEF,GOI 1997(MOEF,1997)gave detailed guidance about the process of Public Hearing, Composition of Public Hearing panel and actual procedure for Public Hearing. Notwithstanding the above developments, the mitigation of irreversible damages are weak which take shelter under the existing enforcement mechanism. The Public Interest Litigation’s in India have been able to force the courts take proactive actions for weak Impact Assessment and EMP by the project proponents. Further, a critical review of a EIA process as a tool for planning hazardous industries in India is yet to get over the twin bottlenecks namely "technical incompleteness and poor participation of stake holders ".

Quite often, in water supply and sanitation the primary constraint seems to be the national standards that inadvertently protect "the coalition of rejection" and mar deployment of ESTs. A reactive and poor ecological planning process at local levels further hinders the ESTs deployment. Thus techo-management capacity building in local authorities in water supply and sanitation remain significant.

2.4 Rapid Urban Environmental Assessment(RUEA)

A three-step REIA process was developed ( Josef Leitmann,1993) to rapidly assess the state of urban environment. This process is based on the need for measurement, observation and validation. To measure a consistent set of data, an urban environmental indicator questionnaire has been used. To observe the nature, trends, and factors that influence environmental quality in the cities, a common frame work for preparing an urban environmental profile has been developed, To partially validate the results from the questionnaire and profile, consultations with key actors in the cities could be held.

Over 1300 local authorities after 1992 simultaneously embarked on the Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI,1997). These initiatives basically supported by the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives(ICLEI) through training, research, technical assistance, information resources and exchange have been the trend setters. Community and other stake holders participation with best ecological principles (ICCE,1996) have been the foundations of these best practices(UNCHS,1999). In most of these initiatives water supply and sanitation(Leyla & Adrienne,1997) have evolved in to unconventional methodologies. For example food and bus tickets in exchange of urban solid waste collection at Curitiba,Brazil has been operational for sometime now.

Based on varied and rich experiences gained during 1972-1992 all over the world, a number of sustainable strategies have been evolved. These strategies in essence are community centered approaches. A sustainable community safeguards itself while not damaging that of others (David A Munro,1991). Further, in the context of water supply and sanitation too, its resources are used frugally and in a sustainable way. It recycles materials, minimizes wastes and disposes of them safely.

Six overlapping types of action are needed to sustain the above strategies for enabling communities to care for their own environments. They are,

Action # 01 : Provide communities and individuals with secure access to resources and an equitable share in managing them.

Action # 02: Improve exchange of information, skills, and technologies

Action # 03: Enhance participation in conservation and development.

Action # 04: Develop more effective local governments

Action # 05: Care for the local environment in every community

Action# 06: Provide financial and technical support to community environmental action.

2.6 Vision of the Community - Mysore as a case

As a default people love and concern for their city, heritage and environment always remains. Mysore urban settlement remains a no exception. In the legacy of Mysore rulers a unique voluntary development took place in 1992 at Mysore. The Mysore Heritage Trust(R) led by former CITB Chairman Late Shri. Jayadevaraj Urs and former Vice-chancellor, University of Mysore Late Shri. D V Urs, and over 28 professions of the Mysore city came together to assess the threats for Mysore city and propose alternative plans. Over 8 workshops deliberated upon the Revised Comprehensive Development Plan(RCDP) of Mysore gave out over 60 ecological and community centered development plans (Jayadevaraja Urs,1992). These objections were submitted to Mysore Urban Development Authority (MUDA) for incorporation in the RCDP. Amongst many suggestions environmentally benign disposal of wastes including recycling and reuses of waste waters were specifically demanded.

Interestingly, around 1992 ADB assisted urban development projects for Mysore were planned. The Mysore Heritage Trust ® suggestions were available at the concerned departments. Yet, an ecologically viable urban development planning never featured in various interventions. This further, led to a classical case of ignoring active community participation and not facilitating local skill, knowledge and expertise. There were hardly any validation of ESTs. EIA was never felt necessity. Towards the end of the project now community is remembered and efforts are on to tie-up its ownership of concepts which were alien, costly and ecologically not beneficial. Ecological engineering and decentralized waste management does not find place in the liquid waste management interventions. In fact some of the target dates in Agenda-21 on water supply and sanitation are violated in the project. Of late, the local people representatives have started raising objections about poor returns of the project. Because the technologically obsolete treatment methods are deployed, the economical losses alone are immense and could have been prevented by way of integrating the needs of the community. The philosophical perspective in the Consultants Inception report-ADB,1997 is neither an integrated approach or appropriate. There are no references to what is demanded by the Community at Mysore or global successful reference bench marks (ICLEI/UNCHS,1999). Paradoxically, Impact studies are carried out at almost the end of the project implementation. Obviously, the question would be, if EIA studies were felt un necessary before the project planning why at all an Impact study at the end ?

Sustainable urban development mandates judicious management of available resources. Further Local Agenda-21 campaigns have been established in over 1300 local authorities all over the World since 1992. Preparing an action plan to implement LA-21 broadly includes at least six aspects : 1) Improving the local authorities own performance on environmental issues. 2) Integrating sustainable development goals with existing policies and practices. 3) Raising local awareness. 4) Encouraging the participation of the public. 5) Forming partnership with a range of interests, and 6) Monitoring and reporting the progress. Certainly, the human settlements and environmental management have become richer since 1992. However, the planning process (KUIDP,1998) goes on " business as usual".

3.0 URBAN WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION - WHAT IS THE NEW TREND ?

Practical good news on water supply and sanitation is elsewhere, there are definite action plans emerging. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council(WSSCC) have initiated a Vision-21 addressing to the Water Supply and Sanitation issues all over the World. Local Consultations in Gujarat( WSSCC,1999) have already facilitated a useful dialogue among the stake holders. Some of the priority issues taken up in include 1) Water quality monitoring 2) Appropriate and choice in Sanitation 3) Rainwater harvesting 4) Challenges to existing system 5) Privatization issues 6) Decentralization issues and 7) Government and NGOs roles. Many action plans have been evolving such as 1) NGO action to monitor the efficiency of services from government and private providers, and to help innovate new service systems. 2) Promoting community ownership as a key factor for successful implementation. 3) Development of Stake holders' forums for operation and maintenance of systems 4) Hygiene awareness to sustain Sanitation planned.

A drive to improve hygiene and sanitation campaigns in the railway stations of Gujarat has been now proposed in collaboration with corporate sector and NGOs. These initiatives are the newest generation of action plan directly focusing at the various communities of stake holders in water supply and sanitation.

As a further emerging scenario, environmental sanitation from eco-systems approach ( Steven & Ingvar,1999) has been throwing challenges for professionals in sanitation. The approach clearly identifies the wrong premises of human excreta as a waste suitable only for disposal and that the environment is capable of assimilating the waste.

Centralized water supply and sanitation without adequate recovery and reuse options which were taken for granted as state -of-the art systems are showing irreversible adverse changes. Some of the findings are very disturbing, such as

1) Disinfecting by- products such as Chlorine is found to be cancer causing.
2) Pharmaceuticals present in the human excreta contaminate water quality
3) Nutrients such as phosphorous, nitrogen and potassium discharged from an individual excreta and urine adequate to produce wheat and maize for one person every year.
4) Depriving the natural fertilizers such as human excreta from Land cause food insecurity.
5) Increased nutrients in ocean being toxic to wild life and threaten bio-diversity

4.0 ROLE OF ESTs IN URBAN WATER RESOURCES & WASTE MANAGEMENT

4.1 Environmentally Sound Technologies

Environmentally Sound Technologies(ESTs) encompass technologies that have the potential for significantly improved environmental performance relative to other technologies. Broadly speaking, these technologies protect the environment, are less polluting, use resources in a sustainable manner, recycle more of their wastes and products, and handle all residual wastes in a more environmentally acceptable way than the technologies for which they are substitutes.(IETC,1999). ESTs should also be compatible with nationally determined socio-economic, cultural and environmental priorities and development goals. UNEP-IETC has come out a data base maESTro which is an information tool. It contains information on a full range of environmental sound technologies, institutions and information’s sources related to water pollution, environmental management, human settlements, hazardous substances, solid waste, waste water, water augmentation and more.

Networking Institutions, Information Systems and Technologies involved with ESTs all over the world reveal that conventional practices have less economical and ecological benefit.

4.2 ESTs in Urban Wastewater Management :

Of late, there is a growing realization that, replication of centralized, highly engineered human waste management systems resultant of sanitary reforms of the 19th century have not been successful in many developing world contexts. The existing conventional and highly engineered waste water's management technologies and strategies often focus on electromechanical solutions that are capital intensive and require investments for effective operation. The shorter life cycles of conventional highly engineered systems becoming evident. Community- based ESTs for domestic wastewater treatment & reuse( George D.Rose,1999) can be classified in a hierarchy of water consumption. The absence of opportunities for resource recovery in conventional treatment also attract other methods with naturally-based technologies. More cases are available with low-cost, decentralized naturally - based infrastructure that promotes the recovery and reuse of waste water resources. As viable alternatives these new found approaches of zero-discharge strategies will contribute to a reduction in the pathogenic contamination of surface and ground water.

In spite of the above mentioned new realization, there is little wisdom available in the sewerage and sewage treatment intervention proposed at Mysore. Critical review of responses to these highly engineering options are too primitive and shockingly media records of an NGO giving a clean certificate to the consultants technological capability could be observed..

Conventional planning and design guidelines for sewerage and sewage treatment are available in manual on sewerage and sewage treatment.(CPHEEO,1993). While these guidelines are quite adequate for planning and design of conventional systems, technology assessment and validation for ESTs have to be supplemented before deployment of scales of operations and type of treatment deployed. There are many design aspects that are yet to be integrated to the conventional sewerage practices. Quite often Conventional sewer designs are too conservative(Jorge & et.,al.,1990) causing poor performance and economical losses. Similarly, shallow sewerage and on-site systems are much cheaper and qualify for ESTs .In urban development projects the main factors affecting the choice of sanitation system are water usage and sullage disposal, the density of settlement, ground conditions, social factors, and system costs. Many a time if there is any question raised on the treatment option consultants ready made justifications with favorable parameters are only projected.

There are hundreds of ecological engineering practices in China and Japan. Only two specific methods are listed.

The use of water hyacinth in waste water treatment is an age old technique utilized over 1000 years ago in Sudan and is being re-visited today. in Castor, Senegal, the local NGO,ENDA-Tiers Monde, has built a Wastewater collection and treatment system serving most of the community’s inhabitants. The project has been successful in gaining support from community members, creating employment opportunities and treating wastewater to a standard high enough to use it directly for the production of food. The effluent is used to grow bananas, apples, papaya, peppers. Corn and a variety of other vegetables. A number of tree species are also grown. The biomass formed is composted and marketed for use in local gardens.

Mysore is one the only few urban settlements in India to have a planned growth through the City Improvement Trust Board(CITB) in the early part of this century. In the early 1990s it has experienced explicit community concerns for ecologically viable urban development planning.

In case of domestic waste water management, study on Mysore development reveal mixed situation. In the shelter of national standards for sewage treatment and pollution control board statutory requirement, planning has been done without considering the need of future water resources harnessing..Water supply and Sanitation sectors are never considered complimentary and resources harnessing practices absent.

At an estimated cost of 131.40 crores INR,an urban infrastructure development project has implemented in Mysore urban . The project has interventions including water supply ( 23.15 crores INR), sewerage and sewage treatment( 48.27 crores INR), storm water management (3.10 crores INR), solid waste management (5.13 crores INR), low cost sanitation(1.94 crores INR) are slums improvement (0.54 crores INR). The project in its various stages of implementation is rated to be reasonably good with regard to its implementations. The disappointment are evident for reasons on " inadequate technological completeness and very poor community participation" There was hardly any transparency in the planning stages and towards the implementation of the project community participation has been elucidated.

One of the serious lapses in this particular case of the project has been the non-compliance of the sewerage and sewage treatment with regard to the Agenda-21. Agenda-21 has been one of the most important written legal commitment of the heads of state for environment during Earth Summit-1992.

Sewerage treatment systems are proposed for Mysore urban for completion by 2001 at a cost of about 37 percent of the total 1314 million INR(Indian Rupees) project as given below :
______________________________________________________________________________
Drainage District     Length of          Main Sewers         Plant Capacity         Sewage Treatment
                            sewers Kms     Cost, M Rupees MLD                        cost, M Rupees
______________________________________________________________________________
A & D                     21.0                 72.58                         60                              83.80
B                             8.5                 36.59                         67                             103.15
C                             6.5           ......16.80                         30                          ... .37.52
______________________________________________________________________________
                          ...36.0          .....125.97                       157                             224.47
______________________________________________________________________________

Aerated lagoons are used for sewage treatment with no recycling or reuse.. The reason given for not adopting low cost treatment is that aerated lagoons require only one third of the land compared to low cost. To justify the treatment option chosen high capital cost, maintenance cost and high skill are cited for argument.(MCC,1999). Not withstanding a propaganda of clear transparency in planning (SOM, Dec 12,98) there are strong objections on treatment options now deployed(MET,1999). A demand for recycling and reuse of sewage in RCDP for Mysore was demanded almost seven years ago( Jayadevaraj Urs, 1992). Absolutely, the ESTs and validation of treatment methodology have been overlooked.. This defies article 21.18a of the Agenda-21 specifying development of capabilities in developing countries during 1995-2000 to implement reuse and recycling capabilities action plans for water recycling"

6.0 CONCLUSION

6.1 EIA for urban development projects in India must be made mandatory.
6.2 Overcoming the EIA shortcomings namely the technical incompleteness and poor
participation of stake holders in urban development must be ensured as an essential aspect .
6.3 ESTs-,Environmentally Sound Technologies(ESTs) data base reinforcing in local bodies and networking communities are necessary. ESTs validation in planning watersupply and sewerage interventions in urban development projects must be made mandatory..
6.4 Local Agenda-21 based on strategies of community centered bottom-up approach need to be facilitated among various stake holders.
6.5 The ongoing Mysore urban infrastructure development project has inbuilt short comings with regard to sewerage and sewage treatment. These shortcomings such as waste water recycling need remedial measures must be set crtitically validated to prevent economical and ecological losses. Compliance to Agenda-21 must be insisted upon.

7.0 REFERENCES

Bio-energy News, Dept. of non-conventional energy, GOI, Vol.1.No.1,SEp 1998 pp 8-13

CPHEE,1993, Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment , Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, 1993

David A.Munro, Caring for the Earth- A strategy for sustainable living, IUCN/UNEP/WWF, Second World Conservation Strategy Project,1991 pp 57-64

Dilys et.al., A directory of Impact Assessment. International Institute for Environment & Development, 1995

Gregory D. Rose, Community - Based Technologies for Domestic Wastewater Treatment and Reuse : options for urban agriculture,International Development Research Centre, IBSnet electronic- Seminar, October 4-29, 1999

ICCE, International Conference on Ecological Engineering , Proceedings, China, 1999

IETC, International Symposium on Efficient Water Use in Urban Areas- Innovative Ways of Finding Water for cities, 6-10 June 1999, Kobe,Japan

Jagannatha V, Environmental Technology Needs for Urban Waste Management, Proceedings on the R’99, Recycle, Reuse and Re-Integration , Geneva, Switzerland, 1997

Jayadevaraj Urs, People Objections/Suggestions on Revised Comprehensive Development Plan for Mysore, The Mysore Heritage Trust(R), Mysore 1992

Jorge E.Hardoy, Sany Cairncross and David Satterthwaite, The Poor Die Young - Housing and Health in Third World Cities, Earth Scan, London, 1990

KUIDFC, Preparation of Plan for Southern Karnataka Region, Public Participation Workshop Report, Mysore 27-28, April 1998

Leyla Alayanak & Adrienne Cruz, Implementing Agenda -21, NGO Experiences from Around the World, UN Non-Governmental Liaison Service,1997

L R Vagle, Environment of Urban Areas in India- An Ecological Approach to its Management, Karnataka Environment Research Foundation, Inaugural Souvenir,1996

Martin H Birlely and K Lock , Health and Peri-urban Natural Resources Production, Proceedings of the Internet conference on Integrated Bio-Systems, IAS/UNU, 1998

MCC- Mysore Mahanagara Palike, Seminar on development works in Mysore under the support of ADB, Background materials, Institution of Engineer’s(India), January 1999

Muraleedharan.Valappil, Dimitri Devuyst, LUC Hens: Evaluation of the Environmental Impact Assessment procedure in India, Impact Assessment, IAIA, Vol 12, No.1,pp75-88

MOEF,1994, The Environment(Protection) Act,1986, Notification dated 27 Jan,1994

MOEF,1997, The Environment(Protection) Act,1986, Notification dated 10 April,1997

MET,1999 :The Mysore Environment Trust(R) inputs for seminar on implementation of developmental works for Mysore, Jan 1999

SOM,1998 : Star of Mysore, Sewage treatment plant : is there a problem, pp2, Dec 12,1998

Steven & Ingwar, Environmental Sanitation from Ecosystems Approach,WSSCC, Vision 21 - Water 1999

WSSCC, Vision 21 - Water for the people Local Consultation in Gujarath.. 1999